Which Of The Following Is The Complete Genetic Makeup Of An Organism

Part of the genetic makeup of a cell which determines one of its characteristics

Look up genotype in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

The genotype of an organism is its complete set of genetic textile.^[ane] Genotype can also be used to refer to the alleles or variants an individual carries in a particular cistron or genetic location.^[2] The number of alleles an individual tin can take in a specific gene depends on the number of copies of each chromosome found in that species, too referred to equally ploidy. In diploid species similar humans, ii full sets of chromosomes are nowadays, pregnant each individual has two alleles for whatever given gene. If both alleles are the same, the genotype is referred to as homozygous. If the alleles are unlike, the genotype is referred to as heterozygous.

Genotype contributes to phenotype, the observable traits and characteristics in an individual or organism.^[3] The caste to which genotype affects phenotype depends on the trait. For example, the petal color in a pea found is exclusively determined by genotype. The petals can exist majestic or white depending on the alleles present in the pea plant.^[4] However, other traits are just partially influenced by genotype. These traits are often called circuitous traits because they are influenced by additional factors, such equally environmental and epigenetic factors. Not all individuals with the same genotype wait or human activity the same way because appearance and behavior are modified by environmental and growing conditions. As well, not all organisms that look alike necessarily have the same genotype.

The term genotype was coined by the Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen in 1903.^[v]

Phenotype [edit]

Whatever given gene volition commonly cause an observable change in an organism, known as the phenotype. The terms genotype and phenotype are singled-out for at to the lowest degree two reasons:

• To distinguish the source of an observer'south knowledge (one can know about genotype by observing Dna; one tin know about phenotype by observing outward appearance of an organism).
• Genotype and phenotype are not always directly correlated. Some genes just limited a given phenotype in certain ecology atmospheric condition. Conversely, some phenotypes could exist the result of multiple genotypes. The genotype is ordinarily mixed upward with the phenotype which describes the terminate result of both the genetic and the environmental factors giving the observed expression (e.g. blueish optics, hair colour, or various hereditary diseases).

A simple example to illustrate genotype as singled-out from phenotype is the flower color in pea plants (see Gregor Mendel). In that location are three available genotypes, PP (homozygous dominant ), Pp (heterozygous), and pp (homozygous recessive). All 3 take different genotypes only the offset 2 have the same phenotype (regal) every bit distinct from the 3rd (white).

A more technical instance to illustrate genotype is the single-nucleotide polymorphism or SNP. A SNP occurs when corresponding sequences of Deoxyribonucleic acid from different individuals differ at ane DNA base, for example where the sequence AAGCCTA changes to AAGCTTA.^[6] This contains two alleles : C and T. SNPs typically accept three genotypes, denoted generically AA Aa and aa. In the case to a higher place, the iii genotypes would be CC, CT and TT. Other types of genetic marker, such every bit microsatellites, can have more than ii alleles, and thus many different genotypes.

Penetrance is the proportion of individuals showing a specified genotype in their phenotype under a given set of environmental conditions.^[7]

Mendelian inheritance [edit]

Here the relation between genotype and phenotype is illustrated, using a Punnett square, for the character of petal colour in a pea found. The letters B and b correspond alleles for colour and the pictures show the resultant flowers. The diagram shows the cross between ii heterozygous parents where B represents the dominant allele (majestic) and b represents the recessive allele (white).

Traits that are adamant exclusively by genotype are typically inherited in a Mendelian blueprint. These laws of inheritance were described extensively by Gregor Mendel, who performed experiments with pea plants to determine how traits were passed on from generation to generation.^[8] He studied phenotypes that were easily observed, such every bit plant height, petal colour, or seed shape.^[viii] He was able to detect that if he crossed two true-breeding plants with singled-out phenotypes, all the offspring would have the aforementioned phenotype. For example, when he crossed a tall plant with a short plant, all the resulting plants would be tall. Yet, when he self-fertilized the plants that resulted, about i/4 of the second generation would exist short. He concluded that some traits were ascendant, such as tall height, and others were recessive, like brusque top. Though Mendel was not aware at the time, each phenotype he studied was controlled by a single gene with two alleles. In the example of plant acme, i allele caused the plants to be tall, and the other acquired plants to be short. When the tall allele was present, the plant would be tall, even if the plant was heterozygous. In order for the plant to exist short, it had to be homozygous for the recessive allele.^{[8] [9]}

One way this can exist illustrated is using a Punnett square. In a Punnett square, the genotypes of the parents are placed on the outside. An uppercase alphabetic character is typically used to correspond the dominant allele, and a lowercase letter of the alphabet is used to represent the recessive allele. The possible genotypes of the offspring can then be adamant by combining the parent genotypes.^[10] In the example on the right, both parents are heterozygous, with a genotype of Bb. The offspring can inherit a ascendant allele from each parent, making them homozygous with a genotype of BB. The offspring tin inherit a dominant allele from 1 parent and a recessive allele from the other parent, making them heterozygous with a genotype of Bb. Finally, the offspring could inherit a recessive allele from each parent, making them homozygous with a genotype of bb. Plants with the BB and Bb genotypes will look the same, since the B allele is dominant. The plant with the bb genotype volition have the recessive trait.

These inheritance patterns can also be applied to hereditary diseases or weather condition in humans or animals.^{[11] [12] [13]} Some conditions are inherited in an autosomal ascendant pattern, significant individuals with the condition typically have an affected parent also. A classic pedigree for an autosomal dominant condition shows affected individuals in every generation.^{[eleven] [12] [13]}

An example of a pedigree for an autosomal dominant condition

Other weather are inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern, where afflicted individuals practise non typically have an affected parent. Since each parent must have a copy of the recessive allele in order to have an afflicted offspring, the parents are referred to as carriers of the status.^{[11] [12] [thirteen]} In autosomal conditions, the sex activity of the offspring does not play a function in their run a risk of existence affected. In sex-linked conditions, the sex of the offspring affects their chances of having the condition. In humans, females inherit 2 10 chromosomes, one from each parent, while males inherit an X chromosome from their mother and a Y chromosome from their father. X-linked dominant conditions can exist distinguished from autosomal dominant weather condition in pedigrees by the lack of manual from fathers to sons, since affected fathers but pass their X chromosome to their daughters.^{[thirteen] [xiv] [15]} In X-linked recessive conditions, males are typically afflicted more commonly because they are hemizygous, with merely one X chromosome. In females, the presence of a second Ten chromosome will prevent the condition from actualization. Females are therefore carriers of the condition and can laissez passer the trait on to their sons.^{[13] [14] [xv]}

An example of a pedigree for an autosomal recessive status

Mendelian patterns of inheritance tin be complicated by additional factors. Some diseases prove incomplete penetrance, significant not all individuals with the affliction-causing allele develop signs or symptoms of the disease.^{[thirteen] [16] [17]} Penetrance can as well be age-dependent, significant signs or symptoms of disease are not visible until after in life. For example, Huntington disease is an autosomal ascendant condition, only up to 25% of individuals with the afflicted genotype will not develop symptoms until after age 50.^[eighteen] Some other factor that can complicate Mendelian inheritance patterns is variable expressivity, in which individuals with the same genotype show different signs or symptoms of disease.^{[13] [sixteen] [17]} For instance, individuals with polydactyly tin can have a variable number of extra digits.^{[xvi] [17]}

Not-Mendelian inheritance [edit]

Many traits are not inherited in a Mendelian mode, but have more complex patterns of inheritance.

Incomplete dominance [edit]

For some traits, neither allele is completely dominant. Heterozygotes often accept an appearance somewhere in between those of homozygotes.^{[19] [twenty]} For example, a cantankerous betwixt true-breeding ruby and white Mirabilis jalapa results in pink flowers.^[20]

Codominance [edit]

Codominance refers to traits in which both alleles are expressed in the offspring in approximately equal amounts.^[21] A classic example is the ABO blood group system in humans, where both the A and B alleles are expressed when they are present. Individuals with the AB genotype accept both A and B proteins expressed on their cerise blood cells.^{[21] [22]}

Epistasis [edit]

Epistasis is when the phenotype of one gene is affected by 1 or more other genes.^[23] This is often through some sort of masking effect of 1 gene on the other.^[24] For case, the "A" cistron codes for hair color, a ascendant "A" allele codes for brownish hair, and a recessive "a" allele codes for blonde hair, but a separate "B" gene controls hair growth, and a recessive "b" allele causes baldness. If the individual has the BB or Bb genotype, then they produce hair and the pilus color phenotype can be observed, but if the individual has a bb genotype, then the person is bald which masks the A cistron entirely.

Polygenic traits [edit]

A polygenic trait is ane whose phenotype is dependent on the additive effects of multiple genes. The contributions of each of these genes are typically pocket-size and add together up to a last phenotype with a large amount of variation. A well studied instance of this is the number of sensory bristles on a fly.^[25] These types of additive effects is also the explanation for the amount of variation in human eye color.

Genotyping [edit]

Genotyping refers to the method used to determine an individual's genotype. There are a diverseness of techniques that can be used to assess genotype. The genotyping method typically depends on what information is being sought. Many techniques initially require amplification of the DNA sample, which is commonly done using PCR.

Some techniques are designed to investigate specific SNPs or alleles in a detail gene or set of genes, such as whether an individual is a carrier for a particular condition. This can be done via a multifariousness of techniques, including allele specific oligonucleotide (ASO) probes or DNA sequencing.^{[26] [27]} Tools such as multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification tin also exist used to wait for duplications or deletions of genes or factor sections.^[27] Other techniques are meant to assess a big number of SNPs across the genome, such as SNP arrays.^{[26] [27]} This type of technology is commonly used for genome-wide association studies.

Large-calibration techniques to assess the entire genome are besides available. This includes karyotyping to determine the number of chromosomes an individual has and chromosomal microarrays to appraise for large duplications or deletions in the chromosome.^{[26] [27]} More detailed information can be adamant using exome sequencing, which provides the specific sequence of all Dna in the coding region of the genome, or whole genome sequencing, which sequences the entire genome including non-coding regions.^{[26] [27]}

See also [edit]

• Endophenotype
• Genotype–phenotype stardom
• Nucleic acid sequence
• Phenotype
• Sequence (biology)

References [edit]

1. ^ "What is genotype? What is phenotype? – pgEd". pged.org . Retrieved 2020-06-22 .
2. ^ "Genotype". Genome.gov . Retrieved 2021-eleven-09 .
3. ^ Pierce, Benjamin (2020). Genetics A Conceptual Approach. NY, New York: Macmillian. ISBN978-one-319-29714-v.
4. ^ Alberts B, Bray D, Hopkin K, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2014). Essential Prison cell Biology (4th ed.). New York, NY: Garland Science. p. 659. ISBN978-0-8153-4454-4.
5. ^ Johannsen W (1903). "Om arvelighed i samfund og i rene linier". Oversigt Birdy over Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Forhandlingerm (in Danish). iii: 247–seventy. High german ed. "Erblichkeit in Populationen und in reinen Linien" (in German language). Jena: Gustav Fischer. 1903. Archived from the original on 2009-05-thirty. Retrieved 2017-07-nineteen . . Also see his monograph Johannsen West (1905). Arvelighedslærens elementer horse [The Elements of Heredity] (in Danish). Copenhagen. which was rewritten, enlarged and translated into German language as Johannsen W (1905). Elemente der exakten Erblichkeitslehre (in German). Jena: Gustav Fischer. Archived from the original on 2009-05-30. Retrieved 2017-07-nineteen .
6. ^ Vallente, R. U., PhD. (2020). Single Nucleotide Polymorphism. Salem Press Encyclopedia of Science.
7. ^ Allaby, Michael, ed. (2009). A dictionary of zoology (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN9780199233410. OCLC 260204631.
8. ^ ^{a b c} "Gregor Mendel and the Principles of Inheritance | Learn Science at Scitable". www.nature.com . Retrieved 2021-11-15 .
9. ^ "12.1 Mendel'south Experiments and the Laws of Probability - Biology | OpenStax". openstax.org . Retrieved 2021-eleven-15 .
10. ^ "3.6: Punnett Squares". Biology LibreTexts. 2016-09-21. Retrieved 2021-eleven-fifteen .
11. ^ ^{a b c} Alliance, Genetic; Health, District of Columbia Section of (2010-02-17). Archetype Mendelian Genetics (Patterns of Inheritance). Genetic Brotherhood.
12. ^ ^{a b c} "Mendelian Inheritance". Genome.gov . Retrieved 2021-11-15 .
13. ^ ^{a b c d eastward f g} Strachan, T. (2018). Homo molecular genetics. Andrew P. Read (fifth ed.). New York: Garland Scientific discipline. ISBN978-0-429-82747-1. OCLC 1083018958.
14. ^ ^{a b} Brotherhood, Genetic; Health, District of Columbia Department of (2010-02-17). Archetype Mendelian Genetics (Patterns of Inheritance). Genetic Brotherhood.
15. ^ ^{a b} "4.4.1: Inheritance patterns for X-linked and Y-linked genes". Biology LibreTexts. 2020-06-24. Retrieved 2021-11-15 .
16. ^ ^{a b c} "fourteen.ii: Penetrance and Expressivity". Biological science LibreTexts. 2021-01-13. Retrieved 2021-11-19 .
17. ^ ^{a b c} "Phenotype Variability: Penetrance and Expressivity | Learn Science at Scitable". world wide web.nature.com . Retrieved 2021-11-19 .
18. ^ Caron, Nicholas S.; Wright, Galen EB; Hayden, Michael R. (1993), Adam, Margaret P.; Ardinger, Holly H.; Pagon, Roberta A.; Wallace, Stephanie E. (eds.), "Huntington Disease", GeneReviews®, Seattle (WA): University of Washington, Seattle, PMID 20301482, retrieved 2021-11-19
19. ^ "Genetic Dominance: Genotype-Phenotype Relationships | Learn Science at Scitable". www.nature.com . Retrieved 2021-xi-15 .
20. ^ ^{a b} Frizzell, Grand.A. (2013), "Incomplete Dominance", Brenner's Encyclopedia of Genetics, Elsevier, pp. 58–60, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-374984-0.00784-1, ISBN978-0-08-096156-9 , retrieved 2021-11-15
21. ^ ^{a b} Xia, X. (2013), "Codominance", Brenner'southward Encyclopedia of Genetics, Elsevier, pp. 63–64, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-374984-0.00278-three, ISBN978-0-08-096156-9 , retrieved 2021-11-xv
22. ^ "Genetic Dominance: Genotype-Phenotype Relationships | Acquire Science at Scitable". www.nature.com . Retrieved 2021-eleven-xv .
23. ^ Gros, Pierre-Alexis; Nagard, Hervé Le; Tenaillon, Olivier (2009-05-01). "The Evolution of Epistasis and Its Links With Genetic Robustness, Complication and Drift in a Phenotypic Model of Adaptation". Genetics. 182 (1): 277–293. doi:x.1534/genetics.108.099127. ISSN 0016-6731. PMC2674823. PMID 19279327.
24. ^ Rieger, Rigomar. (1976). Glossary of genetics and cytogenetics : classical and molecular. Michaelis, Arnd,, Green, Melvin One thousand. (fourth completely rev. ed.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN0-387-07668-9. OCLC 2202589.
25. ^ Mackay, T. F. (December 1995). "The genetic basis of quantitative variation: numbers of sensory beard of Drosophila melanogaster as a model arrangement". Trends in Genetics. 11 (12): 464–470. doi:10.1016/s0168-9525(00)89154-4. ISSN 0168-9525. PMID 8533161.
26. ^ ^{a b c d} Jain, Kewal Chiliad. (2015), Jain, Kewal Grand. (ed.), "Molecular Diagnostics in Personalized Medicine", Textbook of Personalized Medicine, New York, NY: Springer, pp. 35–89, doi:10.1007/978-ane-4939-2553-7_2, ISBN978-1-4939-2553-7 , retrieved 2021-11-xix
27. ^ ^{a b c d e} Wallace, Stephanie E.; Bean, Lora JH (2020-06-18). Educational Materials — Genetic Testing: Current Approaches. University of Washington, Seattle.

External links [edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Genotypes.

• Genetic classification

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genotype

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